Research and Development for the British Space Programme

The British Interplanetary Society (BIS) was founded in 1933 by a group of space flight enthuasiasts to promote and educate on the exploration and use of space for the benefit of humanity.

In the years before World War II a technical core of BIS members made the first plans for a rocket capable of landing three men on the Moon and returning them to Earth. After World War II members of the Society developed ideas for the exploration of outer space including developing liquid rockets for launch into space, the construction of Space Stations, the human exploration of the Moon, the development of probes to investigate other planets in our Solar System and the use of space telescopes to observe distant stars and galaxies.

In 1951 the BIS organized the world’s first International Congress on “The Artificial Satellite”, and became one of the founder members of the International Astronautical Federation (IAF). Earth Remote Sensing was initially advocated and studied at an international level at its NATO Conference in the 1950s, with space biology following soon afterwards.

Planetary studies began with papers examining the propulsion requirements to reach Mars and Venus, as well as projected instruments for scientific probes. Advocacy of studies on comets and meteors helped further the Giotto mission to Halley’s Comet and later the ESA Rosetta mission.

Studies and long term thinking on human spaceflight and launch vehicle development have always been a core area of activity amongst Society members, with the visionary early work on the BIS Lunar Lander, the Orbital Launcher and various other space launchers and space stations.

With the demise of the Apollo Program in 1972, the British Interplanetary Society continued to encourage exploration of ideas on the possibilities of a return to the Moon and its eventual colonization.

More recently a group within the Society has initiated a series of studies on the scientific and technical objectives of conducting a human exploration of the Martian North Polar Cap (Project Boreas), and another group within the Society has initiated a follow on study to the Daedalus Interstellar Starprobe, called Project Icarus.

Pye was founded by W.G. Pye in 1896 in Cambridge as a manufacturer of scientific instruments. During the First World War, Pye manufactured military equipment, including telescopes and surveying equipment. In 1925, the company branched out into radio; Charles Orr Stanley was hired to lead this branch of the company. Stanley bought the radio part of the company in 1928 from W.G. Pye, while W.G. Pye & Co continued as a separate company until it was bought out by Pye in 1946 (see separate W.G. Pye & Co entry). In 1929, Stanley registered the company as Pye Radio Ltd. Over the next three decades, he formed several subsidiary manufacturing companies, which together came to form the Pye Group. In 1937, the name was changed to Pye Ltd to reflect this widening of activity.

The Pye Group was an international company, which made and marketed scientific instruments, communications equipment, radio and television transmitters and receivers, medical equipment, electronic components, electrical equipment and domestic appliances. By 1960, there were 60 UK companies operating under Pye and 20 overseas companies including in Ireland, Australia and New Zealand. It played a major role in the development of the electronic and communications industries in Britain, manufacturing and developing several important products.

Pye played a key role in the development of television from as early as the mid-1920s. In 1930 it began to manufacture television receivers, as well as CRTs and valves. It pioneered television receivers such as the 9-inch receiver in 1936. Once the television service was stopped during World War Two, Pye focused once again on military equipment. It developed Radar, a system for protecting against mine-laying equipment, the Proximity Fuse and differing forms of wireless communication. After the resumption of the service in 1946, Pye maintained its dedication to television, continuing to manufacture receivers and parts. This included demonstrating colour television in 1949, transformer-less television sets, Black Screen Television (sets that did not require darkness to view), Automatic Picture Control (to help prevent reception interference) and the first 27-inch screen, shown at the Radio Show in 1955. The Pye Printed Circuit was incorporated into television receivers in 1956. In 1960, Pye TVT was established as a separate company for the manufacture of television studio equipment including transmitters and cameras. Pye’s communications division, Pye Telecommunications Ltd, made large developments in radio and wireless technologies.

Following the merger of the Pye and EKCO groups in 1960 the combined company was known as British Electronics Industries Ltd. This was changed to Pye of Cambridge Ltd in 1963. Despite these successes, Pye was under increasing financial pressure in the 1960s and was eventually bought out by Philips in 1966. C.O. Stanley resigned as head of the company and went into retirement. In 1967 the Philips Group gained a majority shareholding in Pye and formed Pye Holdings Ltd to administer the Pye Group of companies.

Gradually, over the next 7 years, most of the Pye Group companies were absorbed into the operating companies of Philips Electronics UK. In 1996, when Philips Electronics UK sold the large radio communications division (formerly Pye Telecommunications) to form Simoco International Ltd, this became the parent company of all the ex-Pye and Philips radio communications companies worldwide. Philips continued to selectively use the Pye name as a secondary brand in various countries for many years and to this day Pye branded consumer products are sold by the Philips Group, particularly in Australia and South East Asia.

Sir W.G. Armstrong, Whitworth and Company Ltd was formed in 1897 by the merger of Joseph Whitworth and Company with Armstrong Mitchell and Company, which itself had been formed by the merging of W.G. Armstrong and Co with Charles Mitchell and Co in 1882. This new company manufactured a wide range of products including hydraulic equipment, bridges, armaments and ships. Its shipyards produced many merchant vessels such as freighters, tankers, dredgers and icebreaking train ferries for Lake Baikal. They also constructed warships for the Royal Navy, Imperial Russian Navy, Imperial Japanese Navy and United States Navy, including the first polar icebreaker ‘Yermak’, which was constructed for the Russian Navy and launched in 1898.

Initially the new company was headed by William George Armstrong but following his death in 1900 Andrew Noble was appointed as chairman. Also, at this time production of cars and truck would begin, in order to diversify production following the end of the Boer War and the resultant drop in the demand for artillery. Initially these were designed by other companies, but this would switch to inhouse designs later on.

In 1913 an aerial department was formed to begin production of aeroplane and airships. This department produced a number of different designs during the First World War and in 1920 it became a subsidiary under the name Sir W.G. Whitworth Aircraft Ltd.

Following the end of the First World War the company again recognised a need to diversify due to a greatly reduced demand for munitions. As part of this it formed a subsidiary under the name Armstrong Whitworth Development Company. This acquired Siddeley-Deasy, which became known as Armstrong Siddeley Motors, as well as a controlling interests in Crompton and Co and A and J Main and Co. The Scotswood Works would also be repurposed to build railway locomotives. This proved successful due to the modern machinery that had been installed and would produce 1,464 locomotives until 1937 when it was converted back to armament manufacturing. In addition to the steam locomotives common at the time this figure also included diesel locomotives and railcars due to a licence acquired for Sulzer.

1920 not only saw the aerial department’s reorganisation into the Armstrong Whitworth Aircraft Company but also the purchasing of a controlling interest in Pearson and Knowles Coal and Iron Co, along with its subsidiary Partington Steel and Iron Co. Later, in 1922, the company would also form the Newfoundland Power and Paper Utilities Corporation in order to finance a paper mill and in 1925 Boving Engineering Co was purchased.

By 1926 the company was suffering financially. Due to the Newfoundland company going over budget and not achieving its productions goals the company was suffering from a greatly reduced cash flow. In the first 11 months of 1926 its losses amounted to £625,767 and by 1927 the decision had been take to merge the defence and engineering businesses with that of Vickers in order to create a new subsidiary of Vickers Armstrong. The ownership of this would be split so that Vickers held 2/3 and Armstrong-Whitworth held 1/3. The Armstrong Whitworth Development Company would also be sold, and it became the Armstrong Siddeley Development Company following its acquisition by J.D. Siddeley, although Armstrong-Whitworth still held a substantial shareholding and also retained the Pearson and Knowles Coal and Iron Company.

Despite these actions heavy financial losses continued and, although they were offset by the sale of the company’s shares in the Armstrong Siddeley Development Company, they still resulted in a serious reduction in capital. As a result, the decision was taken to form two new companies to take over the activities of the original one. These were Sir W.G. Armstrong Whitworth and Company (Engineers) Ltd, which took over the general engineering business, and Sir W.G. Armstrong Whitworth and Company (Shipbuilders) Ltd, which took over the Devon, Walker and Tyne shipyards. A holding company was also formed to manage these, Armstrong Whitworth Securities Company Ltd. In 1930 a third company was added to the group, Sir W.G. Armstrong Whitworth and Company (Ironfounders) Ltd.

Beyond this the 1930s saw a winding down of the Armstrong-Whitworth group’s activities. In 1935 Vickers bought the remaining shares of Vickers-Armstrong and in 1937 Sir John Jarvis acquired Sir W.G. Armstrong Whitworth and Co (Ironfounders) Ltd to relieve unemployment on Tyneside. By 1937 the group had also ended production of locomotives and only the engineering subsidiary remained. This was sold in 1943 and the group was liquidated.

The College of Aeronautics was founded in 1946 at RAF Cranfield, with the aim to provide specialist postgraduate aeronautical education in Britain.

Initially the College had four departments covering the main aspects of aeronautics; Aerodynamics headed by Prof W J Duncan, Aircraft Design headed by Prof R L Lickley, Aircraft Propulsion headed by N S Muir and Flight headed by Group Captain R C Hockey.

Between 1955 and 1969, the programme of education diversified to include the creation of new Departments of
Aircraft Electrical Engineering and of Mathematics in 1955 and in October 1958 the creation of a
Department of Aircraft Materials. New courses were planned and introduced covering subjects such as fluid
mechanics, control engineering, and automotive engineering.

In July 1967 the College presented the Privy Council with a Petition for the grant of a Royal Charter along with a draft charter for a new institution to be called Cranfield Institute of Technology.

The Insititute has since expanded, most notably in 1975 when the National College of Agricultural Engineering at Silsoe
became part of Cranfield Institute of Technology, and in 1984 where a third campus was founded at the Royal Military College of Science at Shrivenham.

A V Roe and Co Ltd, more commonly known as Avro, was an aircraft manufacturer based in Manchester. One of the first manufacturers of aircraft, the company operated from 1910 until 1963. Avro was founded by brothers Alliott and Humphrey Verdon Roe and was based originally in the basement of the Everards Elastic Webbing Company's factory at Brownsfield Mill in Ancoats, Manchester. Avro also rented a shed at Brooklands airfield, where the finished aircraft were sold.

Alliott Verson Roe was the aircraft designer, having already constructed a successful aircraft, the Roe I Triplane, in 1909. The Roe I was the first aircraft completely built from British components. Previous aircraft designs had used parts imported from overseas.

Humphrey Verdon Roe was the managing director of the company, bringing funding for the new enterprise from the family webbing company that he also ran.

In 1911 Roy Chadwick joined the company as Alliott’s personal assistant, working as a draughtsman. Chadwick became the firm's Chief Designer in 1918.

The Avro 500, or Avro E, was the company's first mass produced aircraft. It took its first flight in March 1912. Eighteen of these were built, with most of them entering service with the Royal Flying Corps. In the same year, Avro prototyped the Avro F and Avro G, which were the world's first aircraft with fully enclosed crew accommodation, but neither went into production.

September 1913 saw the first flight of the Avro 504. This was a development of the Avro 500 and was purchased by the War Office. As a result, it would see front line service during the early years of the First World War, but was later used primarily for training pilots. The Avro 504 was manufactured for a period of 20 years, with 8,340 being produced in total. The success of the Avro 504 led the company to move to a factory in Miles Platting, Manchester, followed in 1914 by an extension to the company's new works at Newton Heath, which was completed in 1919.

Following the end of the First World War the lack of new orders caused severe financial problems for Avro and in August 1920 68.5% of the company’s shares were acquired by Crossley Motors, who needed additional factory space to build automobile bodies. Avro continued to operate, building aircraft at the Newton Heath works, and testing them at Alexandra Park Aerodrome in South Manchester until 1924, when flight testing moved to Woodford Aerodrome in Cheshire.

In 1928, Crossley Motors sold their stake in Avro to Armstrong Siddeley in order to pay off losses they had incurred on other projects. Avro became part of the Armstrong Siddeley Development Company, prompting Alliott Verdon Roe's resignation from the company. Chief Designer Roy Chadwick remained at Avro, overseeing the production of training aircraft. Chadwick designed the Avro Tutor in 1930, followed by the twin engine Avro 652, which was later developed into the multirole Avro Anson. The Tutor was bought in large quantities by the RAF.

In 1935, Avro became a subsidiary of Hawker Siddeley.

As tensions in Europe increased, resulting in the outbreak of the Second World War, Avro returned to the production of military aircraft, producing the Avro Manchester, Lancaster and Lincoln bombers. The twin engine Manchester was unsuccessful, partly due to its Vulture engines. Replacing the Vultures with four Rolls-Royce Merlin engines resulted in the more successful Lancaster. 7,377 of these were produced and saw active service during the war. In 1944, the Lancaster was further developed into the Lincoln, the last piston engine bomber in Royal Air Force service.

In order to meet rising demand Avro opened a new factory at Greengate, Chadderton, in 1938, where almost half of all Avro Lancasters were produced, with final assembly at Woodford Aerodrome. The following year, Avro also established an experimental department at RAF Ringway, now known as Manchester Airport, and a shadow factory at Yeadon Aerodrome, now Leeds-Bradford Airport. The Yeadon factory produced 5,500 aircraft including Ansons, Lancasters, Yorks and Lincolns.

Towards the end of the Second World War, Avro put into production a number of civil airliners, in order to make up for a drop in military orders. One of these designs was the Lancastrian, which was a conversion of the Lancaster bomber. The second was the Avro York, which was also based on the Lancaster but used a different fuselage. Production of this would be limited until 1944 due to the focus on military aircraft. The final design that the company produced was the Tudor. This used many components from the Lincoln but suffered from the fact that it wasn’t sufficiently advanced when compared to existing designs and as a result it did not achieve many orders. Despite this both the York and Tudor were used in the Berlin Airlift.

On 23rd August 1947 Roy Chadwick was killed in a crash involving a prototype Tudor 2 that was undergoing testing. Despite this his impact on the company continued, as he had already begun design work on a number of aircraft that Avro went on to produce.

In 1948 Avro produced the Tudor 8 which was powered by four Nene jet engines. This design retained the tail wheel undercarriage, which placed the engine exhausts close to the ground. As a result, the company replaced this with a tricycle undercarriage for the Tudor 9. The design became known as the Avro Ashton, which first flew in 1950. Although this was one of the first jet transport aircraft it was primarily used for research and it was not intended to enter service.

On 30th August 1952 the Avro 698 made its first flight. This was a four engine jet bomber that had been developed to replace existing piston engine designs. Further development of the design resulted in the Avro 707 and the Avro 710. The 710 was not put into full production as it was considered too time consuming to develop. The 698 entered service in 1956 under the name Vulcan, with an improved B.2 version introduced in 1960. The Avro Vulcan was retired in 1984 after having only being using in combat once, during the 1982 Falklands War.

During the late 1950s the company developed the 748 turbo-prop airliner. This successful design was sold around the world and was later developed into the Ashton transport by Hawker Siddeley. The same period also saw the company’s weapons research division begin development of the Blue Steel nuclear missile.

During 1963, parent company Hawker Siddeley restructured its aviation subsidiaries. Each subsidiary had operated under its own brand name, but from July 1963 all subsidiaries were merged into Hawker Siddeley's Aviation Division, which was operated as a single brand. The missile division of the company would become part of the Dynamics Division. Avro as a company ceased to exist, but the Avro was later reused by British Aerospace for their 146 regional airliner, known as the Avro RJ.

Hawker Siddeley Group PLC was initially formed as the Hawker Siddeley Aircraft Company on 11th July 1935. The new company was established to acquire all of the shares of the Armstrong Siddeley Development Company and 50% of the shares of the Hawker Aircraft Company. This merged the two largest British aircraft manufacturers and included the subsidiaries of the two companies involved. These consisted of Armstrong Siddeley Motors, Sir W.G. Armstrong Whitworth Aircraft Ltd and A.V. Roe and Co, which were part of the Armstrong Siddeley Development Company, and the Gloster Aircraft Company, which was part of Hawker, all of which continued to produce aircraft under their own names.

During the Second World War Hawker Siddeley was one of the most important aircraft manufacturers in Britain. During the course of the conflict it produced several important designs including the Hawker Hurricane and Avro Lancaster as well as working on Britain’s first jet aircraft, the Gloster E.28/39, and the first British jet fighter, the Gloster Meteor. In 1945 the company also purchased Victory Aircraft from the Canadian government and transferred to its subsidiary Avro. This then became A.V. Roe Canada but was most often know as Avro Canada.

On 22nd June 1948 the company underwent a restricting when it was transformed from a private to a public limited company and underwent a name change. As such it went from being Hawker Siddeley Aircraft Company Limited to Hawker Siddeley Group Limited.

In 1957 the Hawker Siddeley Group purchased the Brush Group, which included Brush Electrical Machines and Brush Traction. At the time it also acquired Mirrlees, Bickerton and Day. It also formed Hawker Siddeley John Brown Nuclear Construction as a joint venture to produce nuclear power equipment for marine propulsion, electrical generation and other industrial applications. In 1958 it formed another join company this time with Beyer Peacock, under the name Beyer Peacock (Hymek) Ltd, in order to manufacture diesel hydraulic locomotives. 1959 saw a further joint company, Primapax, which made, hired and sold vending machines.

During the late 1950s the British government decided that the number of aircraft manufacturers should be decreased as the number of contracts being offered was being reduced. As a result of this Hawker Siddeley merged all of its aviation interests, Hawker, Avro, Gloster, Armstrong Whitworth and Armstrong Siddeley, into a single division, Hawker Siddeley Aviation during October 1958. In 1959 it also merged its aircraft engine business, Armstrong Siddeley, with Bristol Aero Engines to form Bristol Siddeley Engines. The group also acquired Folland Aircraft and in 1960 purchased both the de Havilland Aircraft Company and the Blackburn Group.

By 1961 the Hawker Siddeley Group was made up of 3 major operational groups, Hawker Siddeley Aviation, Hawker Siddeley Industries and A.V. Roe Canada. Avro Canada would be dissolved in 1962 due to the cancellation of the Avro Arrow aircraft with its remaining assets being transferred to Hawker Siddeley Canada. The new company focused on the manufacture of railway vehicles, subway cars and trams.

In 1963 the group underwent a further restructuring as the names of its constituent companies were dropped in favour of a single Hawker Siddeley branding. As a result, the company’s products were rebranded with a HS number in place of their previous number. During 1968 the group expanded further by acquiring Crompton Parkinson, which was later combined with Brook Motors, when they acquired this company in 1970, to form Brook Crompton.

On 29th April 1977 the Hawker Siddeley Group underwent a major change when, as a result of the Aircraft and Shipbuilding Industries Act, its Aviation and Dynamics groups were nationalised and merged with the British Aircraft Corporation and Scottish Aviation to form British Aerospace. Despite this loss of its aviation interests, they only accounted for 25% of the group’s business and as such it was able reorganise its remaining interests in a holding company, Hawker Siddeley Group PLC. The decision was taken to focus this group on railway engineering, industrial electronics and signalling equipment.

During the 1980s the Hawker Siddeley Group continued to expand, acquiring Carlton Industries between 1981 and 1984, and GEC Small Machines Company and GEC Alsthom Electromotes in 1989. This success made the group a target for a hostile takeover by the BTR conglomerate and in November 1991 they acquired it for £1.5 billion. The Hawker Siddeley name continued to be used in the group’s switchgear division which was later sold to FKI and later Melrose PLC.

Basil Derek Wragge Morley was born in Cambridge, and most noted for his work on the study of ants. From 1946-1949, he held the Macaulay Fellowship for Genetical Research at Edinburgh University. In 1948, he was an invitation lecturer at the Institute for Social Anthropology at Oxford. His research included Genetics, Social Behaviour of animals, and the behaviour of agricultural pests. During the Second World War he investigated insect pests for the Ministry of Agriculture.

Derek Wragge-Morley wrote several books on Ants, including "The Ant World" (1953), and a film on the subject called "Ant Warfare". He also wrote a book about computing machines, entitled "Automatic Data Processing", which was published in 1961 by Her Majesty's Stationery Office for the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and acted as a scientific consultant to a film about the application of computers in industry and the pros and cons of installing such systems, entitled "This Automaton Age".

He later became an independent scientific consultant, who served as Scientific Editor for both Picture Post Magazine and the Financial Times.

He married Monica Strutt in 1952, and had four children.

Terence R.F. Nonweiler worked as a professor at Queen's University, Belfast and wrote the first conceptual paper on the Nonweiler Waverider, a British manned spaceplane, in 1951.

Established as a joint venture between the Bristol Aeroplane Co and Aerojet General of the US, based in Weston-Super-Mare. The company was sold to Vickers in 1979.

John Clifford "Cliff" Garrett founded the company in Los Angeles in 1936. Garrett AiResearch was a manufacturer of turboprop engines and turbochargers, and a pioneer in numerous aerospace technologies. It was previously known as Aircraft Tool and Supply Company, Garrett Supply Company, AiResearch Manufacturing Company, or simply AiResearch. In 1964, Garrett AiResearch merged with Signal Oil & Gas to form a company renamed in 1968 to Signal Companies, which in 1985 merged with Allied Corp. into AlliedSignal. In 1999 AlliedSignal acquired Honeywell and adopted the Honeywell name.

The Company's first major product was an oil cooler for military aircraft. Garrett designed and produced oil coolers for the Douglas DB-7.[3] Boeing's B-17 bombers, credited with substantially tipping the air war in America's and Great Britain's favor over Europe and the Pacific, were outfitted with Garrett intercoolers, as was the B-25. The Company developed and produced the cabin pressure system for the B-29 bomber, the first production bomber pressurized for high altitude flying. By the end of World War II, AiResearch engineers had developed air expansion cooling turbines for America's first jet aircraft, the Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star.

In the late 1940s and early 1950s, Garrett was heavily committed to the design of small gas turbine engines from 20 - 90 horse power (15 - 67 kW).

During the 1950s AiResearch initiated activities in the field of aircraft electronics, and designed and produced a wide range of military and industrial products for aerospace and general industry. It focused on fluid controls and hydraulics, avionics, turbochargers, aircraft engines, and environmental control systems for aircraft and spacecraft. By 1960 Garrett gas turbines, cabin pressurization systems, air conditioners, and flight control systems were aboard the Convair 880, Lockheed Super Constellation, Vickers Viscount, Sud Aviation Caravelle, Douglas DC-8, and Boeing 707. The company had also developed the first inflatable airliner evacuation slides.

In the 1950s and 1960s Garrett pioneered the development of foil bearings, which were first installed as original equipment on the McDonnell-Douglas DC-10 in 1969 and then became standard equipment on all U.S. military aircraft. In the 1960s, AiResearch Environmental Control Systems provided the life supporting atmosphere for American astronauts in the projects Mercury, Gemini, Apollo, and Skylab.

By 1962, Garrett was powering the world’s first turbocharged production car, the Oldsmobile Jetfire Rocket. This was followed by several other firsts, including the first turbocharged car to win the Indianapolis 500 (1968), the first turbo for a non sports car application (1977-Saab 99), the first mass production turbo for diesel engines (1978-Mercedes 300SD), and the first turbo to win the 24 Hours of Le Mans (1978-Renault).

The Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) was formed in June 1918 when the Royal Aircraft Factory (RAF) was renamed, partly to avoid its abbreviation being confused with the newly formed Royal Airforce. In addition to this renaming there was also a shift away from the production that had previously been undertaken on the Establishment’s Farnborough site, and an increased focus on the research and development that was seen as its main role in the aviation industry, although a small number of aircraft continued to be constructed on site until the end of the war in November 1918. As part of this the sites function was defined as being to conduct experimental and development work on aeroplanes and engines, the testing of experimental instruments and accessories, undertaking flying instrument development for which there was little commercial demand, investigating failures within aircraft and components, liaison with industrial contractors for research purposes, technical supervision during construction of experimental machines, being available for approach for approval of designs and stressing of new aeroplanes, and the issue of airworthy certificate and of technical publications.

The first director of the newly renamed RAE was W. Sydney Smith, who had replaced Henry Fowler as head of the RAF in April 1918. With the new focus on research and development he brought about some reorganisation of the departments with some being established or changed to focus on specialist areas including aerodynamics, engines, physics, instruments, metallurgy, mechanical testing, chemistry and fabrics.

With the end of the First World War the RAE underwent a large reduction in staff and resources, with the numbers employed falling from 5,052 in November 1918, to 1,380 by the mid-1920s. There was a similar reduction in funding, with only 3.9% of the Air Estimate being allocated to the site in 1922, but research would continue to be conducted despite these difficulties.

In 1919 there was also a shift away from purely military work as several companies approached the RAE for assistance with the design and handling characteristics of their new civil aircraft. The first Certificate of Airworthiness was also issue to a civilian aircraft at this time. As well as this 1919 also saw the beginning of the early helicopter work undertaken by Louis Brennan. Based in one of the airship sheds on the site he continued testing until 1925 when it crashed during a demonstration and the Air Ministry cut the project’s funding.

In 1920 the Wireless and Photography department was formed, illustrating the growing importance of these technologies, and more sophisticated equipment was installed in the structures department to test wing loading, replacing the previous method of using sandbags to weight aircraft components.

The research activities of the RAE continued throughout the 1920s. These included comparisons between the results gains from full scale flight tests and those from models tested in wind tunnels as well as theoretical studies of stability and other flight characteristics. Other work included the development of an early variable pitch propeller and the testing of many of the new types of aircraft that were being developed by numerous companies. The development of oxygen systems for aircrews was also undertaken due to the increased altitudes that were being encountered both in tests and in everyday flight.

Also, during the 1920s a great deal of research was undertaken in the development of aircraft catapults. These used a compressed air and hydraulics to launch aircraft and would be later developed for use on the Royal Navy’s large warships. Further work would be undertaken on inflight refuelling and 1927 would see the start of experiments to develop turbine engines by Alan Arnold Griffith. There was also a great deal of work undertaken on the RAE Larynx, an pilotless aircraft designed as a guided anti-ship weapons and seen as a predecessor to both cruise missiles and modern drone aircraft. Seven of these were produced and tested and, although it did not enter production, it was the start of the development of numerous drone aircraft that were used for gunnery targets, such as the Queen Bee that was used by the Royal Navy during the 1930s.

The development of photographic equipment was an important area of development in the interwar period and in 1929 the RAE produced the first of its F24 aircraft cameras. This was fitted to many aircraft during the Second World War for aerial reconnaissance and would continue to be used until the mid-1950s. An Instrument and Photographic Department was also formed to help with the development of equipment for aerial photography, reflecting its growing importance both in military and civilian circles. The problem of spinning in aircraft was also tackled at this time with the production of a 12ft wind tunnel in which to conduct tests. This was followed in 1935 by a 24ft tunnel that was used to test air and water-cooled engines and other full size components. A 660ft tank was also built to test the hydrodynamics of seaplane hulls. Finally, in 1937 an additional wind tunnel was constructed that was able to operate at 600mph, reflecting the growing performance of aircraft at the time.

The declaration of war in August 1939 ““made little fundamental change in the policy and work of the Establishment since it was the expected culmination of what was known as the ‘Expansion Scheme’ which had been going on progressively since the adoption of a national rearmament policy in 1935”. Despite this there was a great deal of expansion with the number of staff increasing to 6,000 and new runways and hangars being constructed, which brought the airfield site up to 800 acres.

Despite the site’s importance, the RAE was only bombed once during the course of the war. This occurred on 16th August 1940 when eight aircraft dropped a total of 20 bombs, although only half hit the site with the rest falling on nearby houses. Three members of staff were killed, and work was disrupted for three days but would then resume, with some operations being dispersed to other sites.

During the war a large number of new systems were developed, including a gyro gun-sight that improved the accuracy of fighter aircraft and early forms of airborne RADAR, which were tested by the Radio Department. Tests on captured enemy aircraft were also undertaken as were early tests on models of the Gloster E28/39, Britain’s first jet aircraft. Advances were also made in aerial photography and a new bombsite was also developed as was a rocket propelled catapult designed to fire aircraft from merchant ships.

In August 1941 Beatrice Shilling, known as Tilly, developed the R.A.E. Restrictor, better known as Miss Shilling’s Orifice. This was developed to prevent loss of power in aircraft performing negative ‘g’ manoeuvres during combat and was a simple washer fitted to the fuel pipe that prevented the engine from being flooded by fuel. Although it did not completely solve the issue it did allow for quick low ‘g’ manoeuvres to be conducted and bought time for a more permanent solution to be developed by Rolls-Royce, in the form of pressure carburettors.

With the end of the Second World War in 1945 the RAE again underwent a reduction in staffing. From a wartime peak of around 6,000 this dropped to approximately 3,000 as many of the site’s personnel returned to the civilian industry. Also, in March of the same year research into piston powered aircraft ceased and all attention was focused on jet propulsion. In November 1945 the RAE was opened to the public in order to illustrate the site’s war work. Not only was the site opened but there was also a display of British and German aircraft which drew a great deal of attention.

In the immediate post war years research continued, although at a much reduced intensity, and included a great deal of research into transonic flight characteristics. Some of this was undertaken using rocket propelled models dropped from aircraft in flight. Some research was also conducted on the Miles M.52 prior to this project’s cancellation. A further area of investigation at this time was the installation of flexible decks on aircraft carriers. This hope to replace the undercarriage of aircraft with a sprung rubber deck on ships. It was hoped that this would increase the performance of aircraft, but it was never implemented in service. A more successful design was the angled flight deck, which was proposed by the Naval Aircraft Department and, after a model was produced and refinements implement, this was adopted as standard for all aircraft carriers at the time.

In 1948 the Society of British Aircraft Constructors moved their annual display to Farnborough. This would continue to be held annually on the site until 1962, when it changed to a biannual display in partnership with the Paris Air Show. Although initially this was only open to British designs from 1974 it became the Farnborough International Airshow. In 1952 the air show was the site of an major accident when a de Havilland DH110 broke up during a display and crashed into the crowd, killing 31.

During the 1950s a substantial amount of testing was undertaken on many new civilian designs if aircraft and, even though some of these did not enter service, a great deal of technical information was gained from the experiments. Helicopters also began to undergo testing at the RAE with numerous aspects of their design being tested. 1952 also saw the arrival of an Avro 707 which was used to examine the aerodynamic properties of delta wings, data that would be later used in the design of Concorde and the Avro Vulcan.

Following the loss of two Comet aircraft in 1954 the RAE was the site of a major investigation into the causes of their loss. Parts were salved from both of the crashes and brought back to Farnborough where they were pieced back together. Further to this a large water tank was built where a complete Comet body was repeatedly pressurised to investigate the effect of repeated pressurisation and depressurisation. Other Comets were also sent to the RAE to conduct flight trails and other investigations. All of these tests found that the aircraft had been lost due to the failure of the structure and led to a redesign of the type, as well as a greater understanding of the science of metal fatigue.

By 1958 the structure of the RAE had developed to have the following departments: Aerodynamics, Armament, Armament and Instrument Experimentation, Carrier Equipment, Chemistry, Electrical Engineering, Experimental Flying, Guided Weapons, Instruments, Instrument and Photographic, Mathematical Services, Mechanical Engineering, Metallurgy, Naval Aircraft, Radio, Rocket Propulsion and Structures.

1958 also saw the beginning of calculations on the TRIDAC analogue computer as well as the launch of many of the rocketry projects that the RAE was involved in. These were the Skylark and Black Knight rockets that were both tested at the Woomera facility in Australia.

During the 1960 the RAE was involved in a number of projects ranging from the development of the UK3 satellite, the first UK satellite, and the TSR2 aircraft to the invention of high strength carbon fibre. RAE scientists would also be present at the first launch of the Blue Streak rocket in 1964. This period also saw work undertaken as part of the development of Concorde, including testing the airframe for the effects of heat and stress.

In 1970 the Royal Aircraft Establishment was involved in the launch of the R1 satellite by the Black Arrow rocket from the Woomera test site. This was the responsibility of the space department and built on the work they had undertaken on the previous Black Knight system. They would also have design authority for the Prospero satellite that was launched in 1971 and the Ariel IV, launched in 1973.`` 1970 also saw the opening of the RAE Museum on the site. For the rest of the 1970s the RAE was involved in the development of satellite and senor systems, for both military and civilian uses. The increase in importance of the satellite research was demonstrated in 1988 when the RAE changed its name to the Royal Aerospace Establishment.

On 1st April 1991 the Royal Aerospace Establishment merged with the Admiralty Research Establishment, the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment, the Royal Armament Research and Development Establishment and the Royal Signals and Radar Establishment to form the Defence Research Agency. This brought together all of the previously independent Defence Research Establishments before it was itself merged with other departments to form the Defence Evaluation and Research Agency in 1995. Research flying would continue at Farnborough under these new institutions until 1994 when this end and in 2003 all Ministry of Defence operations on the airfield ceased.

Ian B Wright worked in the Development Division of Frankenstein and Sons Ltd, a waterproof clothing manufacturing company based in Manchester. Along with his colleague Steve Sullivan, Wright was involved in the designing and testing of a full pressure suit in collaboration with A V Roe & Co Ltd and the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment at Boscombe Down. The suit was intended for use by pilots of the Royal Air Force Bomber Command flying V Bombers at very high altitudes. The development of ultra high altitude protective clothing came to an end in Britain when the V-Bomber force operations changed to relatively low altitude interdiction.

(fl 1930-2006), aviation engineer

John Allen was educated at state schools in London, taking a BSc in aeronautical engineering at London University; he earned top prizes in his discipline. A student apprenticeship with Handley Page honed his practical skills. Allen was science officer with the Marine Experimental Research Establishment (MAEE) at Rhu, Scotland. When the unit returned to Felixstowe in 1945 he was appointed head of its technical office.

John supervised the ballistics and aircraft integration of Blue Danube, Britain's first atomic bomb, at Farnborough from 1950 until 1954. From 1960 he was deputy director of Avro's new weapon research division, working on development of the hydrogen bomb. In 1969 John was appointed chief future projects engineer with Hawker Siddeley, involved particularly with development of Harrier and Hawk aircraft that for decades made an impact while training or giving displays with the Red Arrows formation team

John married Peggy Heath in 1948 and they had two sons who became engineers, and four grandchildren. Peggy died in 1987.

Air Vice-Marshal Professor John Ernsting was recognised worldwide as a leading authority in aviation medicine; his pioneering work led to the development of special life-support equipment allowing military aircrew and civil aircraft to operate at extreme altitudes.

Ernsting was commissioned into the RAF Medical Branch in 1954. For 25 years he worked in the altitude division of the Institute of Aviation Medicine (IAM) at Farnborough, and he specialised in studying the physiological aspects of flying at high altitudes, including protection against hypoxia and decompression sickness, leading teams carrying out the research and development of specialised pressure suits, helmets and breathing assemblies needed for new higher flying aircraft.

The work he co-ordinated at the IAM on cabin pressurisation also led to an acceptance that the cabin pressure in Concorde should be 6,000ft, rather than the internationally-agreed 8,000ft for airliners operating at lower altitudes. His finding also influenced the design of emergency oxygen supplies in airliners, and also influenced the size of the cabin windows in Concorde.

In 1971 he was appointed its head, with responsibility for research, teaching and the direction of the specialist staff. During the late 1960s he was the RAF's aeromedical project officer for the development of the British versions of the American-built F-111, Phantom and Hercules aircraft.

He also conducted research into a system of generating an oxygen supply in a combat aircraft. During a sabbatical year at the USAF School of Aerospace Medicine, he worked on a development of the idea, which was eventually installed in the later marks of the Harrier aircraft.

He returned to the IAM in 1980 as deputy director of research. He was chairman of the aeromedical and life-support system working parties for the Tornado and for the formative phase of the Eurofighter project. In 1988 he was appointed commandant of the IAM, a post he held until his retirement in December 1992. He remained a civil consultant for the next two years.

He also placed great emphasis on correct and realistic training, and played a key role in the creation and development of the RAF's Aviation Medicine Training Centre.

On leaving the RAF he moved to King's College, London, to teach and conduct research in human and aviation physiology. He was the honorary civil consultant in aviation medicine to the RAF, aeromedical adviser to BAE Systems and a past president of the International Academy of Aviation and Space Medicine.

Ernsting was a member of numerous specialist and international working parties, and chaired a number of Nato committees and workshops. He wrote many professional papers and was the co-editor of Aviation Medicine, the standard reference for all civil and military aviation medicine practitioners.

He was elected a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, of the Aerospace Medical Association and of the Royal Aeronautical Society and was awarded many national and international prizes. He was appointed OBE in 1959 and CB in 1992.

John Billingham was born on 18 March 1930 in Worcester, and after earning a degree in physiology at Oxford
University, he started clinical studies at Guy’s Hospital in London, qualifying in 1954. He also attended meetings of the British Interplanetary Society.

In 1956 Billingham joined the Royal Air Force as a medical officer, training as a surgeon and rising to the rank of squadron leader. His research at the Royal Air Force Institute of Aviation Medicine in Farnborough was particularly focused on climatic physiology, and included the impact of heat stress on pilots.

In 1963 Billingham joined NASA after being headhunted from the Institute becoming the head of environment physiology at NASA's Johnson Space Center in Houston. He was hired to improve space suit design, with an early project being to develop water cooled underwear which the RAF Insitute had already been long working on.

In 1965 Billingham moved to Ames Research Center, where he led the first comprehensive study on a permanent lunar laboratory. He was eventually named chief of the Life Sciences division.

He supported the search for intelligent and microbial extraterrestrial life with a major programme including workshops, research, papers, and a major conference in 1979 later published as a book, Life in the Universe.

The Aerospace Medical Association (AsMA) was founded in 1929 by Louis H. Bauer, M.D., the first medical director of the Aeronautics Branch of the Department of Commerce (which later became the FAA).

The Association was founded to share information on aeronautical medicine with the american public and aircrew to generate further progress in the field, with annual meetings held, first national growing to international by the 1940s, and the production of a quarterly journal from March 1930.

In 1942, the society first started appointing fellows to the society and in 1944 created an award for achievement in the field

In 1950, the Space Medicine Branch of the AsMA society was formed, following the U.S. Air Force School of Aviation Medicine establishing a Department of Space Medicine the previous year.

In November 1960 the association’s executive council permitted a group of American Air Force flight surgeons to form a constituent organization called the Society of U.S. Air Force Flight Surgeons. The organization continues to the present day and serves as a forum for men and women in the career field to socialize and discuss key issues. In the mid-1970s the U.S. Navy formed a similar constituent organization.

Through the decades the organization has expanded to include researchers, physiologists, nurses, and many other aerospace medicine professionals.

Worked for the Research Institute of National Defence, Stockholm

In 1946 Normalair Ltd. was formed as a subsidiary company of Westland Aircraft Ltd. to meet the growing demands for this specialist equipment, and today employs 1,100 people and has its own extensive production facilities. Normalair operate the most extensive respiratory laboratory, and are the largest producers of aircraft pressurisation, air conditioning and oxygen breathing equipment, in Europe.

All British military aircraft that are pressurised are fitted with Normalair equipment, and such famous airliners as the Viscount, Britannia and Comet are equipped by Normalair.

With subsidiary companies in Canada and Australia, and with representatives and agencies all over the world, Normalair provides a very wide market with cabin pressure controllers, discharge valves, safety valves, humidifiers, water extractors, flow control valves, cooling turbines, oxygen regulators, liquid oxygen converters, and many items of equipment vital to the needs of the aircraft of today.

For several years the company has had license agreements with the two American companies foremost in these fields, namely the Garratt Corporation of Los Angeles and Bendix Aviation of New York. These agreements have been the source of substantial dollar export business by Normalair.

In 1953, Normalair provided the oxygen equipment that enabled Sir Edmund Hillary and Sherpa Tensing to be the first to conquer Everest and, in 1955, provided the oxygen sets that were used in the first successful assault on Mount Kanchenjunga.

The company also produces lightweight portable oxygen equipment for medical, industrial and emergency use, and are the sales agents in the UK for the respirators and breathing equipment made by Mrs Dräger of Lubeck. This business is handled by Normalair's branch office in Manchester.

The Garrett Corporation took a 48% share in the company in 1966, and was subsequently renamed Normalair-Garrett Limited (NGL). The company is now Honeywell Normalair Garrett Ltd.

The U.S. Office of Naval Research was established on August 1, 1946 and authorized under Public Law 588 to support science and technology research for the benefit of the US Navy and Marine Corps.

The Royal Air Force Institute of Aviation Medicine was a Royal Air Force aviation medicine research unit active between 1945 and 1994.

It was first located at Farnborough Airfield in Hampshire, and was successor to the wartime RAF Physiological Laboratory. The Institute conducted theoretical and applied reseach in support of flying personnel with divisions for acceleration, altitude, biochemistry, biophysics, personal equipment and teaching.

The IAM obtained a decompression chamber (moved from the Physiological Laboratory) in 1945, supplemented by a climatic chamber in 1952, and a human centrifuge in 1955 (the latter facility is still in operation and was designated a Grade 2 Listed Building in August 2007).

Additionally, the Institute was responsible for a number of mobile decompression chambers and the training of operators for chambers deployed at certain RAF operational stations with the object of familiarising flying personnel with the effects of annoxia at operational altitudes.

The IAM became a world leading centre for aviation medicine research in the 1960s and 1970s, gaining additional facilities, and continuing an active flight research programme that commenced in World War II. Research into protection against the effects of high altitude, high G force, heat and cold stress, noise and vibration, sleep and wakefulness, spatial disorientation, vision, aviation psychology and human error, and aircraft accident investigation dominated activities at the IAM. Much work was done to develop and improve aircrew life support equipment.

The IAM ceased to exist in 1994, when many research staff and facilities were transferred to the DERA Centre for Human Sciences.

Worked for the Karolinska Institute in Solna, Sweden and wrote the book 'Basic Environmental Problems of Man in Space', published 1967.

The Research Institute of National defence also known as the National Defence Research Institute (FOA) was established in 1945, and took over operations at the Armed Forces Chemical Institute (Försvarsväsendets kemiska anstalt, FKA), the Institute of Military Physics (Militärfysiska institutet, MFI) and the Swedish Board of Inventions telecommunications technical working group (Statens uppfinnarnämnds teletekniska arbetsgrupp, SUN). The FOA was organized in three research departments, FOA 1 chemistry/medicine, FOA 2 general physics and FOA 3 telecommunications and an office.

In 1959 FOA 4 (nuclear physics and nuclear chemistry) was added. A special institution for operations analysis, planning and investigation FOA P, was added in 1958 and was renamed the planning agency in 1962. In 1958 the office was reorganized into the administrative bureau. In 1962, an institution for materials research was added and in 1965 the Defence Telecommunications Technology Laboratory (Försvarets teletekniska laboratorium) was separated from the FOA 3 as a separate unit.

A major reorganization occurred on 1 July 1974. After this the FOA was organized in a central office, which accounted for among other thing the projections, management, staffing and education issues, and five main departments, FOA 1-5:
FOA 1: armed forces studies, environmental and social studies, security policy and operations analysis and systems analysis
FOA 2: general physics, nuclear device technology, EDP, material research, protection technology, etc.
FOA 3: optics, electronics, acoustics, radar and signals intelligence
FOA 4: biochemistry, microbiology, chemistry and radiac
FOA 5: behavioral sciences, biotechnology and medicine

The central office was divided in 1976 into three parts: central planning, administrative bureau and staff administrative bureau. These were later reorganized into two: the Planning and development unit and the management unit.

Together with the National Aeronautical Research Institute (FFA) the new agency Swedish Defence Research Agency (FOI) was established on 1 January 2001.

Part of the Royal Netherlands Airforce, the National Aeromedical Centre is now known as the Center for Man in Aviation and is responsible for the physical and mental training of military flight personnel.

Located in Soesterberg, Netherlands.

Worked as a Medical Adviser for T. Wall & Sons (Ice Cream) Ltd., London

The Air Ministry was created to oversee the formation of the Royal Air Force an amalgamation of the Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air Service. As well as overseeing and managing the affairs of the Royal Air Force it also issued specifications for aircraft to aircraft companies. The prototype aircraft would be tested by the Ministry who would then assigned it with a name.

Steve Sullivan worked in the Development Division of Frankenstein and Sons Ltd, a waterproof clothing manufacturing company based in Manchester. Along with his colleague Ian B Wright, Sullivan was involved in the designing and testing of a full pressure suit in collaboration with A V Roe & Co Ltd and the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment at Boscombe Down. The suit was intended for use by pilots of the Royal Air Force Bomber Command flying V Bombers at very high altitudes. The development of ultra high altitude protective clothing came to an end in Britain when the V-Bomber force operations changed to relatively low altitude interdiction.

The Bendix Aviation Corporation was a manufacturer of aircraft parts based from 1929 to 1960 in Los Angeles, California.

It was started by inventor Vincent Bendix in 1929 as a continuation of his auto parts company. It was renamed to Bendix Corporation in 1960, and in 1983 was acquired by the Allied Corporation (later Allied Signal) and combined with King Radio Company to form Bendix/King. Now owned by Honeywell, Bendix/King remains a brand of avionics.

Bendix Aviation developed and manufactured advanced carburetion for aircraft engines; landing gear oleo struts; jet engine fuel controls for early J79 engines; and designed guidance systems and assembled the Talos missile for the US Navy.

Bendix aviation masks and gauges were also modified and tested for use in diving and hyperbaric applications.

Worked in the Climatic Research Laboratory, RAF Institute of Aviation Medicine c.1950-1960

Worked in the Oxygen Section, Royal Aircraft Establishment, Farnborough c.1955-1980.

Worked for the RAF Institute of Aviation Medicine.

George Beardshall was an engineer who is known to have worked for AVRO during the Second World War. Bearshall later worked as a Chief Engineer in the Oxygen Division of Normalair Ltd., which manufactured life support equipment for the aerospace industry.

Worked for Normalair Ltd.

Worked as a Weapons System Manager, Air Branch, US Office of Naval Research.

Worked at the National Aeromedical Centre, Soesterberg, Netherlands

Worked for Bristol Aerojet Ltd. c.1959-1979

Worked at Pye Limited, Cambridge

Worked for Hawker Siddley Nuclear Power Company Ltd.

Worked as Chief Aerodynamicist at Sir W.G. Armstrong Whitworth Aircraft Ltd.

Worked at A.V. Roe and Company (Avro).

Worked as the Head of the Aerophysics group at A.V. Roe and Company (Avro).

Worked at the College of Aeronautics, Cranford.

Geoffrey Keith Charles Pardoe attended and gained a BScEng from Loughborough of College of Technology and later gained a PhD in Astronautics from Loughborough University in 1984.

From 1949-1951 he was Senior Aerodynamicist at Armstrong Whitworth Aircraft, then part of Hawker Siddeley. He worked on rocket design and the Sea Slug (missile) (Britain's first guided missile). From 1951-19566 he was Chief Aerodynamicist at the Guided Weapons division of de Havilland Propellers, working on the De Havilland Firestreak. He worked on aerodynamics and flight analysis.

De Havilland was given the Blue Streak ballistic missile project, and he was the Chief Co-Ordinator from 1956 until its cancellation in 1960. De Havilland merged with Hawker Siddeley in 1960, and he was the Chief Engineer of Hawker Siddeley Dynamics Weapons and Space Research division from 1960-1963. From 1963-1969 he was Chief Project Engineer of the company's Space Division. He was Managing Director from 1985-7 and Deputy Chairman from 1987-93 of Surrey Satellite Technology.

During the Apollo 11 mission to the Moon in 1969, he was part of the television commentary team with Reg Turnill. He was chosen for this role as he was a good communicator.

In 1986 he became Chairman of the Watt Committee on Energy. From 1984-1985 he was President of the Royal Aeronautical Society. He was made OBE in 1988, a Fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society in 1968, and of the Royal Academy of Engineering in 1988. From 1993 until his death in 1996 he was Director of the International Academy of Science.

Worked at Pye Limited, Cambridge

Worked at Pye Limited, Cambridge

Worked as Technical Director at Sir W.G. Armstrong Whitworth Aircraft Ltd.

Worked as the Head of the Assessment group at A.V. Roe and Company (Avro).

Originally known as The Heywood Compressor Co, founded in Glover Street, Redditch, Worcestershire, it was renamed The Hymatic Engineering Co. in 1946. The company designed and produced portable and stationary air compressors and valves supplying the Royal Air Force in the 1950s.

Around 1952 it was acquired by Chloride and by 1957 was a subsidary of Chloride Electrical Storage Co.

By 1973, the company was involved in cryogenics, systems engineering, aircraft and missile equipment, precision control valves, and other products and was taken over by Huntleigh Investments in 1974.

Now owned by Honeywell, Honeywell Hymatic is a maker of high tech equipment for the defence and aerospace sectors.