(1769-1849) Knight Civil Engineer Brunel was born on the 25 April 1769 at Hacqueville, Normandy. After six years in the French navy, Brunel returned to France, which was then in the midst of revolution. Within a few months his royalist sympathies compelled him to leave. He fled to the United States and sailed for New York on 7 July 1793, where he held the post of chief engineer of New York City at the age of 27. He built many buildings, improved the defences of the channel between Staten Island and Long Island, and constructed an arsenal and a cannon foundry. A design of his won the competition for the new Capitol to be built in Washington, D.C., but another design was used because of economic considerations. Brunel perfected a method for making ships’ blocks (pulleys) by mechanical means rather than by hand, and he sailed to England in 1799 to lay his plans before the British government. His plans were accepted, and he was placed in charge of installing his machines at Portsmouth dockyard. When completed, the system of 43 machines—run by 10 men—produced more blocks than 100 men could by hand, and the quality of these blocks was higher and more consistent. Production was much higher. The Portsmouth installation was one of the earliest examples of completely mechanized production. Having arrived in Britain he married Sophia Kingdom on 1 November 1799. They had two daughters, Sophia and Emma, followed on 9 April 1806 by a son, Isambard Kingdom Brunel. A prolific inventor, Brunel designed machines for sawing and bending timber, making boots, knitting stockings, and printing. His sawmills at Battersea (now in Wandsworth), London, were nearly destroyed by fire in 1814, which, combined with financial mismanagement by his partners, drove his enterprise into bankruptcy. After the government refused the output of his army-boot factory when the Napoleonic Wars ended in 1815, Brunel was imprisoned in 1821 for indebtedness. After several months, his friends obtained from the government a grant of £5,000 for his release. Brunel also practiced as a civil engineer. His designs included the Île de Bourbon suspension bridge and the first floating landing piers at Liverpool. In 1818 he patented the tunneling shield, a device that made it possible to tunnel safely through waterbearing strata. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1814. In 1825 operations began for building the Brunel-designed tunnel under the River Thames between Rotherhithe and Wapping (in London). This scheme, which had no precedent, was completed in 1842, after great physical and financial difficulties and a seven-year hiatus in construction brought about by lack of funds. The tunnel opened to traffic in 1843. Brunel had been knighted in 1841 for his engineering feat. His son, Isambard Kingdom Brunel, was also a noted engineer; he designed the first transatlantic steamer.